A pocket guide to public speaking free download

Locate Secondary Sources The most likely sources of secondary research include books, newspapers, periodicals, government publications, blogs, and reference works such as encyclopedias, almanacs, books of quotations, and atlases. Books Books explore topics in depth. A well-written book provides detail and perspective and can serve as an excellent source of supporting examples, stories, facts, and statistics. To search the titles of all books currently in print in the United States, refer to Books in Print at www.

Alternatively, log on to Amazon. Newspapers and Periodicals In addition to reports on the major issues and events of the day, many newspaper stories include detailed background or historic information. Several Web sites devoted to newspapers include newspaper archives e. A periodical is a regularly published magazine or journal. Periodicals can be excellent sources because they generally include all types of supporting material, as discussed in Chapter 8. Periodicals include general-interest magazines such as Time and Newsweek, as well as the thousands of specialized magazines, newsletters, and refereed journals.

Articles in refereed journals are evaluated by experts before being published and supply sources for the information they contain.

Articles in general-interest magazines rarely contain citations and may or may not be written by experts on the topic. Most general-interest magazines are available in Infotrac Online. There is also an ever-increasing array of databases devoted to individual disciplines such as business, health, education, and psychology.

Government Publications Nearly all the information contained in government documents comes from primary sources and is therefore highly credible. Get started by logging on to FirstGov. The site also includes links to reliable statistics of every kind. Reference Works Reference works include, but are not limited to, encyclopedias, almanacs, biographical resources, books of quotations, poetry collections, and atlases.

Encyclopedias summarize knowledge that is found in original form elsewhere. Their usefulness lies in providing an overview of subjects. General encyclopedias attempt to cover all important subject areas of knowledge. Specialized encyclopedias delve deeply into one subject area, such as religion, science, art, sports, or engineering. The most comprehensive of the general encyclopedias is the Encyclopaedia Britannica. As with encyclopedias, there are both general and specialized almanacs.

Fully one-third of the Encyclopaedia Britannica is devoted to biographies. For analyses and criticism of the published works of, individuals you may be speaking about, see Current Biography or Dictionary of American Biography. Countless specialized biographies feature everything from African American Inventors to Famous Hispanics in the World and in History access is free at coloquio.

Speakers often use lines of poetry or entire poems both to introduce and conclude speeches and to illustrate points in the speech body. Every library has a collection of poetry anthologies as well as the collected works of individual poets.

Online, search for poetry on poetryarchive. As well as serving to locate a particular locale and learn about its terrain and demographics, many atlases use maps to explore art history, human anatomy, and many other subjects. Online, go to the National Geographic Web site. To learn about what atlases offer beyond geography, conduct a search of atlases related to your topic, e.

These can be useful as research and as models of speeches. From Source to Speech Recording and Citing Books When using a book as a source, locate and record the following citation elements: 1 Title 2 Author 4 City of Publication 5 Year of Publication 3 Publisher 6 Page Number 1 6 2 3 4 5 68 Record Notes When taking notes, create a separate heading for each idea and record each of the citation elements author, title, and so forth.

Following is a sample note for a summary see also sample notes for paraphrases, p. Indicate whether the material is a direct quotation, a paraphrase, or a summary of the information. Following is a sample note for a paraphrase see also sample notes for summaries, p. A blog is a site maintained by individuals or groups containing journaltype entries.

A social news site allows users to submit news stories, articles, and videos, to share with other users of the site. The most popular items win more visibility. Who is the publisher?

Is the person or organization reputable? What other publications has the author or organization published? See Chapter 11 for directions on how to orally credit sources in your speech.

Record References as You Go To avoid losing track of sources, maintain a working bibliography as you conduct your research. See Appendix A for guidance on preparing an end-of-speech bibliography. Effective 10 Doing Internet Research As with conducting research in a library, the key to a productive search on the Internet lies in a well-thought-out research strategy, an understanding of the kinds of information that are available, and a grasp of how to use search tools effectively.

Find Print and Online Sources Using a Library Portal As you search for speech materials, easy access to the Internet may lead you to rely heavily or even exclusively on popular search engines such as Google or Yahoo!

Library holdings are built through careful and deliberate selection processes by trained professionals. No such standards exist for popular Web search engines.

TABLE Countless documents and Web sites form part of the invisible Web; this is yet another reason why you should not rely solely on popular search engines for your speech sources.

Search engines such as Google cannot discern the quality of information; only a human editor can do this. Where is similar information found? Why did they do so? Will these sources be accepted by my audience as credible? Distinguish among Information, Propaganda, Misinformation, and Disinformation Be alert to the quality of the information you examine.

Is it reliable information, or is it propaganda, misinformation, or disinformation? The purpose of propaganda is to instill a particular attitude—to encourage you to think a particular way. Military posters that encourage you to enlist are an example of propaganda. One common form of misinformation on the Internet is the urban legend—a fabricated story passed along by unsuspecting people. The Internet is widely used for disinformation.

Results are generally ranked from most to least relevant, though criteria for relevance vary. Individual search engines such as Google, Yahoo! Meta-search engines such as Ixquick, MetaCrawler, and Dogpile scan a variety of individual search engines simultaneously. Note that increasingly, librarians discourage the use of meta-search engines because so many return only the top listings from each search engine and include far too many paid listings.

Examples of these include Scirus Science Search; Bioethics. Check government-sponsored sites such as www. Government-sponsored sites are free of commercial taint and contain highly credible primary materials. Be wary of sites that do not include such a link. Look for contact information. Check for Currency 4 Check for a date that indicates when the page was placed on the Web and when it was last updated.

Is the date current? Web sites that do not have this information may contain outdated or inaccurate information. Reputable Web sites document the sources they use. Follow any links to these sources, and apply the same criteria to them that you did to the original source document.

New specialized search engines emerge continually. Directory Dir. Review its list of the Top blogs and use its engine to search for blogs on your topic.

To locate information on social news sites, visit Digg or Reddit, or conduct a search for your topic e. Some engines and directories accept fees from companies in exchange for a guaranteed higher ranking within results called paid placement.

Others accept fees to include companies in the full index of possible results, without a guarantee of ranking called paid inclusion. It can be much harder to identify paid-inclusion results, however.

See Consumerwebwatch. Following is a sample note for a quotation see also sample notes for summaries, p. This indicates a paid-placement listing. Conduct Smart Searches Familiarize yourself with the features of the search tools you select.

Record Internet Sources Because Internet sites often change, be sure to keep track of your speech sources. Record source information as you use it, either by creating footnotes with your word-processing program or with citation tools such as EndNote or RefWorks.

Also see Appendix A for instructions on maintaining a working bibliography. Remember, you need not credit sources for ideas that are common knowledge— established information likely to be known by many people and described in multiple places see p. The type of source magazine, book, personal interview, Web site, blog, online video, etc. However, keep a running list of source details for a bibliography to appear at the end of your speech draft or outline.

For guidelines on creating a written bibliography for your speeches, see Appendix A. For example, they might cite the publication name and date but leave out key details that could convince the audience to accept the source as reliable and its conclusions as true.

But discerning listeners will accept as legitimate the supporting materials you offer for your claims—examples, stories, testimony, facts, and statistics see Chapter 8 —only if they believe that the sources are reliable and accurate. While a source that is reliable is usually accurate, this is not always so. For example, a soldier based in Iraq might read a news article in the Wall Street Journal about a battle in which he or she participated. The soldier knows the story contains inaccuracies because the soldier was there.

Since even the most reliable source can sometimes be wrong, it is always better to offer a variety of sources, rather than a single source, to support a major point. This is especially the case when your claims are controversial.

For example, a politically conservative audience may reject information from a liberal publication. Thus audience analysis should factor in your choice of sources. In addition to checking that your sources are reliable, consider whether they will be seen as credible by your particular audience. On the contrary, audience members will welcome information that adds backing to your assertions. The key is to avoid a formulaic, or mechanical, delivery.

You can do this by varying your wording. Listeners are more likely to trust the source if it is connected to a trusted entity. Example: In a December 18, , blog posting on TechPresident.

Example: In a session on mindfulness delivered on the Google campus on November 12, , and broadcast on YouTube, Jon Kabat-Zinn, scientist, author, and founding director of the Stress Reduction Clinic. Example: On July 8, , in Congressional testimony before the U.

Facts that are widely disseminated and commonly known require no attribution. Mary Klein, a stem-cell researcher from the Brown University School of Medicine, echoed this sentiment when she spoke last Monday at the Public Health Committee meeting.

Census Bureau, which produces national population estimates annually using the latest available data on births, deaths, and international migration, indicates that in , there was one birth every eight seconds and one death every twelve seconds in the United States.

For examples of how to cite quotations, paraphrases, and summaries, see Chapter 4, pp. Part 3 Organization Outlining the Speech 12 Organizing the Speech A speech structure is simple, composed of just three general parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the purpose of the speech and shows its relevance to the audience. The conclusion brings closure to the speech by restating the purpose, summarizing main points, and reiterating why the thesis is relevant to the audience.

In essence, the introduction of a speech tells listeners where they are going, the body takes them there, and the conclusion lets them know they have arrived.

Chapter 15 focuses on how to create effective introductions and conclusions. In this chapter we explore the body of the speech. It consists of three elements: main points, supporting points, and transitions. Their function is to represent each of the main elements or claims being made in support of the speech thesis. To create main points, identify the central ideas and themes of the speech. What are the most important ideas you want to convey? What is the thesis? What key ideas emerge from your research?

Each of these ideas or claims should be expressed as a main point. If you have too many main points, further narrow your topic or check the points for proper subordination see p. West Texas boasts its own Grand Canyon. South Texas boasts its own desert. Each main point should be mutually exclusive of one another. If they are not, consider whether a main point more properly serves as a subpoint. Express each main point as a declarative sentence one that states a fact or argument. This emphasizes the point and alerts audience members to the main thrusts of your speech.

This helps listeners understand and retain the points, and it lends power and elegance to your words. If it is especially important that listeners remember certain ideas, introduce the points near the beginning of the speech and reiterate them at the conclusion. If your goal is to inform, include details that help listeners grasp the topic. If it is to persuade, subpoints should include compelling reasons, causes, and facts that help convince listeners to agree with you.

If your goal is to entertain, appeal to humor or goodwill. Use Indentation to Arrange Supporting Points In an outline, supporting points appear in a subordinate position to main points. This is indicated by indentation. As with main points, supporting points should be arranged in order of their importance or relevance to the main point.

The most common format is the roman numeral outline. Main point A. Supporting point 1. Sub-supporting point a. Sub-sub-supporting point Here is an example in phrase outline form; see p. Subject line most important, yet neglected part of e-mail.

Determines if recipient reads message 1. Needs to specify point of message 2. Determines if recipient ignores message 1. May ignore e-mail with missing subject line 2. May ignore e-mail with unclear subject line II. Use proven techniques for effective subject lines A. Make them informative 1.

Match central idea of e-mail 3. Be current B. Check for sense 1. Convey correct meaning 2. Avoid continuing subject line in text 1. May annoy the reader 2. May be unclear a. Could be confused with spam b. Try to adhere to these principles as you arrange your speech points.

Unity A speech exhibits unity when it contains only those points implied by the purpose and thesis statements. Each main point supports the thesis, and each supporting point provides evidence for the main points.

Each sub-supporting point supports each supporting point. Finally, each point should focus on a single idea. The speech body should follow logically from the introduction, and the conclusion should follow logically from the body. Within the body of the speech itself, main points should follow logically from the thesis statement, and supporting points should follow logically from the main points.

Transitions serve as logical bridges that help establish coherence. To ensure coherence, adhere to the principle of coordination and subordination — the logical placement of ideas relative to their importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate are given equal weight. An idea that is subordinate to another is given relatively less weight.

In outlines, coordinate points are indicated by their parallel alignment and subordinate points are indicated by their indentation below the more important points.

For an example, see the outline shown earlier on using effective subject lines in business-related e-mails: Coordinate points are aligned with one another, while subordinate points are indented below the points that they substantiate. Balance The principle of balance suggests that appropriate emphasis or weight be given to each part of the speech relative to the other parts and to the theme. The body of a speech should always be the longest part, and the introduction and conclusion should be of roughly the same length.

Stating the main points in parallel form is one aspect of balance. Assigning each main point at least two supporting points is another. Think of a main point as a body and supporting points as legs; without at least two legs, the body cannot stand.

Transitions can take the form of full sentences, phrases, or single words. Use Transitions between Main Points When moving from one main point to another, full-sentence transitions are especially effective. Use Transitions between Supporting Points Transitions between supporting points can also be handled with full sentences.

Conjunctions or phrases also called signposts such as the following can be just as effective: Next. Transitions can also be stated as rhetorical questions, or questions that do not invite actual responses. Body I. Transition: So how do you go green? Get informed—understand what is physically happening to the planet Transition: Understanding the issues is only part of going green, however. Perhaps most importantly. Recognize that change starts here, on campus, with you.

Note how the student edits himself to ensure that he 1 uses transitions to help listeners follow along and retain his speech points and 2 uses transitions strategically to achieve his goal of persuading the audience. College campuses generate the waste equivalent of many large towns. Colleges face disposal issues, especially of electronics.

Administrators face decisions about mounting energy costs. Transition: Following are some ideas to create a greener campus. Promote a campus-wide recycling program Transition: For example. Decrease the availability of bottled water and disposable.

Insist on recycling bins at all residence hall. Encourage computer centers to recycle. Decreasing the consumption of plastic and paper, installing recycling bins, and responsibly disposing of print cartridges will make a huge difference. Another aspect of going green is using sustainable energy. Lobby administrators to investigate solar, wind, and geothermal.

Explore alternative heating. Get involved at the town government level A. Town-grown committees. Speak up and voice your concerns. Transition: As you can see, we have work to do. This transitional phrase introduces additional examples. Student inserts an internal summary to help listeners retain information and transition to the next main point. Will contests be too expensive? Well, actually. Use Previews and Summaries as Transitions Previews are transitions that tell the audience what to expect next.

Within the body itself, internal previews can be used to alert audience members to a shift from one main point or idea to another: Victoria Woodhull was a pioneer in many respects. Similar to the internal preview, the internal summary draws together important ideas before the speaker proceeds to another speech point. Selecting an 13 Organizational Pattern Once you have selected the main points for your speech, you must decide on the type of organizational arrangement or combination of arrangements for them.

Speeches make use of at least a dozen different arrangements of main and supporting points. Here we look at seven commonly used patterns for all forms of speeches: chronological, spatial, causal cause-effect , problem-solution, topical, narrative, and circular.

These patterns offer an organized way to link points together to maximum effect. Arranging Speech Points Chronologically Topics that describe a series of events in time or that develop in line with a set pattern of actions or tasks lend themselves to the arrangement of main points according to their occurrence in time relative to one another.

A chronological pattern of arrangement also called a temporal pattern follows the natural sequential order of the main points. A speaker might describe events leading to the adoption of a peace plan, for example, or describe how to build a model car. Do keep your main points in one pattern, but feel free to use other patterns for subpoints when it makes sense to do so. For instance, for a speech about the history of tattooing in the United States, you may choose a chronological pattern to organize the main points but use a cause-effect arrangement for some of your subpoints regarding why tattooing is on the rise today.

Organization, whether of main points or subpoints, should be driven by the demands of the content. Arranging Speech Points Using a Spatial Pattern When describing or explaining the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object, logic suggests that the main points can be arranged in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to one another. This calls for a spatial pattern of arrangement. Soon visitors come upon an age-old watering hole that has receded beneath the foot cliffs.

Beyond are the famous cliff carvings made by hundreds of travelers over several centuries of exploration in the Southwest. Sales are strongest in the Eastern Zone. Sales are growing at a rate of 10 percent quarterly in the Central Zone. Sales are up slightly in the Mountain Zone. Examples include 1 events leading to higher interest rates, 2 reasons students drop out of college, and 3 causes of spousal abuse. The main points in a causal cause-effect pattern of arrangement usually take the following form: I.

Cause II. Cause 1 lack of funds II. Cause 2 unsatisfactory social life III. Cause 3 unsatisfactory academic performance IV. Cause lack of funds Effect 1 lowered earnings over lifetime III. Effect 2 decreased job satisfaction over lifetime IV. Effect Longest-running aviation investigation in history. Cause Court found cause of explosion was a terrorist act, a bomb planted by Libyan citizen Al Megrahi.

Cause Many people believe that Megrahi did not act alone, if he acted at all. This type of arrangement can be as general as two main points: I. Solution offer a way to overcome the problem But many problem-solution speeches require more than two points to adequately explain the problem and to substantiate the recommended solution: I.

The nature of the problem identify its causes, incidence, etc. Unsatisfactory solutions discuss those that have not worked IV. Nature of online bullying A. Types of activities involved 1. Circulation of embarrassing pictures 3. Sharing private information 4. Threats B. Incidence of bullying C. Effects of online bullying on victims A. Acting out in school B.

Feeling unsafe in school C. Skipping school D. Unsuccessful attempts at solving online bullying A. Letting offenders and victims work it out on their own B. Ignoring problem, assuming it will go away IV. Educate in schools B. Report incidents to authorities C. Suspend or expel offenders Arranging Speech Points Topically When each of the main points is a subtopic or category of the speech topic, try the topical pattern of arrangement also called categorical pattern. Consider an informative speech about choosing Chicago as a place to establish a career.

You plan to emphasize three reasons for choosing Chicago: the strong economic climate of the city, its cultural variety, and its accessible public transportation. Since these three points are of relatively equal importance, they can be arranged in any order without affecting one another or the speech purpose negatively. Accessible transportation II. Cultural variety III. Economic stability II. You can approach a topic by dividing it into two or more categories, for example.

You can lead with your strongest evidence or leave your most compelling points until you near the conclusion. If your topic does not call out for one of the other patterns described in this chapter, be sure to experiment with the topical pattern.

Arranging Speech Points Using the Narrative Pattern Storytelling is often a natural and effective way to get your message across. In the narrative organizational pattern, the speech consists of a story or series of short stories, replete with character, settings, plot, and vivid imagery.

In practice, a speech built largely upon a story or series of stories is likely to incorporate elements of other designs. Whatever the structure, simply telling a story is no guarantee of giving a good speech. Any speech should include a clear thesis, a preview, well-organized main points, and transitions.

Here, you develop one idea, which leads to another, which leads to a third, and so forth, until you arrive back at the speech thesis. Use the chronological pattern of organization. Use the spatial pattern of organization. Use the causal cause-effect pattern of organization. Use the problem-solution pattern of arrangement. Use a topical pattern of arrangement. Use a narrative pattern of arrangement, perhaps in combination with another pattern. Use a circular pattern of arrangement.

Outlines are critical to organizing a speech, revealing any weaknesses in the logical ordering of points and providing a blueprint for presentation. Plan on Creating Two Outlines As you develop a speech, you will actually create two outlines: a working outline also called preparation or rough outline and a speaking, or delivery, outline.

Completed, the working outline will contain your entire speech, organized and supported to your satisfaction. The speaking outline also called a delivery outline is the one you will use when you are practicing and actually presenting the speech. Speaking outlines, which contain your ideas in condensed form, are much briefer than working outlines. Figure Use Sentences, Phrases, or Key Words Speech outlines can be created using complete sentences, phrases, or key words.

In a sentence outline, each main and supporting point is stated in sentence form as a declarative sentence one that makes an assertion about a subject. So too are the introduction and conclusion. Often, these sentences are stated in much the same way the speaker wants to express the idea. The following is an excerpt of a working outline in sentence format from a speech by Mark B. McClellan1 on keeping prescription drugs safe: I. The prescription drug supply is under unprecedented attack from a variety of increasingly sophisticated threats.

Technologies for counterfeiting, ranging from pill molding to dyes, have improved across the board. Inadequately regulated Internet sites have become major portals for unsafe and illegal drugs.

An outline that uses full sentences is not recommended because it restricts eye contact and forces the speaker to focus more on reading verbatim from the outline than on actually delivering the speech.

A phrase outline uses partial construction of the sentence form of each point. Phrase outlines encourage you to become so familiar with your speech points that a glance at a few words is enough to remind you of exactly what to say. Drug supply under attack A. Counterfeiting technologies more sophisticated B. Threats A. Counterfeiting B. Internet Many speaking experts recommend using the key-word format for delivery, suggesting that less reliance on outline notes allows you increased eye contact with the audience and greater freedom of movement.

This format also ensures that you are prepared and in better control of your thoughts and actions. Many classroom speaking and writing assignments require that you demonstrate your thoughts in organized fashion. On the job, employers hire people who can communicate ideas logically and convincingly, both orally and in writing. You will also make a greater impact in the community when your ideas are convincingly and compellingly arranged. Once you complete the outline, prepare a bibliography.

It uses the sentence format and includes labeled transitions. Imagine how you would feel if someone were tracking everything you did on the Internet, including recording your passwords and credit card numbers. Attention getter II. A type of software known as spyware can install itself on your computer without your knowledge and harvest this sensitive information. To protect yourself, you need to understand how spyware works. Thesis IV. BODY I. Spyware is about a decade old and appears in many guises.

FTC, March Report 1. Some types track your Web-browsing habits and sell this information to marketers. The most dangerous type, called keystroke logging, records and transmits keystrokes to steal such personal information as passwords and social security numbers. Spyware is different from a virus in a variety of ways.

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